Computer Aided Colorimetric Analysis of Fine Art Paintings

Bibliographic reference:

HARDEBERG John Yngve, CRETTEZ Jean-Pierre. Computer Aided Colorimetric Analysis of Fine Art Paintings

Available at: http://www.tsi.enst.fr/publications/Hardeberg/oslo98a.pdf

Extract:

3 Colorimetric analysis

Disposing of a colour-calibrated digital image representing the painting, we project every pixel of the image to its corresponding position in the 3-dimensional CIELAB space, thus obtaining a cloud of points representing all the colours used in the painting, the colour distribution. We perform a segmentation of the CIELAB space into different regions, such as light and dark colours, pastels and saturated colours etc. This segmentation in CIELAB space also provides a segmentation of the painting itself. We can then perform a colorimetric analysis of the resulting regions separately, and extract several properties, such as the precision of the nuances, colour harmonies, principal colours etc. We can also perform statistical analyses of the colour distributions.

Dublin Core Metadata:

Title: Computer Aided Colorimetric Analysis of Fine Art Paintings

Creator: HARDEBERG John Yngve, CRETTEZ Jean-Pierre

Subject: image acquistion/ colorimetric analysis/ fine arts paintings/ qualitative analysis

Description: Presents a study about colometric analysis assisted by computer. Start with how acquiere images especially images’ colors and finish by an explanation of the colometric analysis.

Publisher: Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Télécommunications

Date: None

Type: Text

Format: Pdf

Identifier: http://www.tsi.enst.fr/publications/Hardeberg/oslo98a.pdf

Source: http://www.tsi.enst.fr/

Language: En
Relation: -
Coverage: International

Rights: Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Télécommunications

Infrared reflectography and spectroscopic analysis of paintings.

Bibliographic reference:

HEEREN R.M.A., VAN ASPEREN DE BOER J.R.J., VAN DER WEERD J. Infrared reflectography and spectroscopic analysis of paintings.

Available at: http://www.amolf.nl/research/biomacromolecular_mass_spectrometry/molart/Surfacespec.htm

Extract:
"Multivariate analysisIn order to increase the information content in a FTIR image, Principal Component Image Analysis (PCIA) was developed for FTIR image analysis. It could be shown that PCA analysis is able to extract characteristic sets of IR absorption bands which correlate with the sample's components and greatly improve the selection process of wavenumbers used for the visualization of the different components. During 1998 these algorithms and the corresponding user interfaces have been optimized. It is now routinely used as an analytical tool in the examination of the FTIR paint-cross section data, described in that project."

Dublin Core Metadata:

Title: Infrared reflectography and spectroscopic analysis of paintings.
Creator: HEEREN R.M.A., VAN ASPEREN DE BOER J.R.J., VAN DER WEERD J.
Subject: infrared reflectography/ spectroscopic analysis/ analytical techniques/
Description: “Paintings are perceived by the human eye as a result of the reflected light in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The returned spectrum strongly depends on the absorbance characteristics of the surface of the painting. The ratio between various absorption's and reflections at different wavelengths determines the contrast and brightness of paintings. In other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum it is possible to observe different features of a painted work of art which can elucidate the creative process, chemical features of the materials used and the state of preservation of a painting. In this project we examine paintings and paint samples (embedded paint cross-sections) with a number of spectroscopic techniques as described in the description of the analytical instrumentation developments. Infrared reflectography is used to study the underdrawings of paintings, FTIR-microscopic imaging is used to study embedded paint cross-sections and FTIR-emission spectroscopy will be used to study the chemical nature of the surface of the painting. As a result of the evaluation procedure the project on spectroscopic imaging of entire paintings in the UV and VIS spectral region has been terminated.”
Publisher: MOLART
Date: 2000
Type: Text
Format: Html
Identifier:http://www.amolf.nl/research/biomacromolecular_mass_spectrometry/molart/Surfacespec.html
Source: None
Language: En
Relation: -
Coverage: International
Rights: MOLART

Adapting the Chemical Analysis of Paintings in the Context of Art conservation to a Project-Based Learning Instrumental Analysis Laboratory.

Bibliographic reference :

STENKEN Julie. Adapting the Chemical Analysis of Paintings in the Context of Art conservation to a Project-Based Learning Instrumental Analysis Laboratory.

Available at : asdlib.org/onlineArticles/elabware/StenkenPBLArt.pdf




Extract :

"Outline of Analytical Methods used for Paint Analysis.
Paintings can be analyzed for their molecular content by using a variety of different instrumental methods of analysis [13]. The principal methods applied to paintings are chromatographic and spectrometric. Chromatographic analysis of paintings can involve the use of thin-layer chromatography (TLC), gas chromatography (GC) and liquid chromatography (LC). TLC is typically only used to obtain rapid information about a particular class of analyte being present in the painting. The lack of resolving power forces the use of GC and LC methods for separation and quantitative analysis"


Dublin Core Metadata :

Title : Adapting the Chemical Analysis of Paintings in the Context of Art conservation to a Project-Based Learning Instrumental Analysis Laboratory.
Creator : STENKEN Julie
Subject : art paintings/ content analysis/ chemical analysis/ art conservation
Description : « This manuscript is envisioned as a “living” progress report for my attempt at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute to use art conservation methods as a means to help better teach analytical chemistry. The intent is to update this manuscript and web site as a means to provide additional information about what works and what does not work with respect to project based learning with this approach in the Instrumental Methods of Analysis laboratory. This report gives a brief introduction to the chemistry of paintings. Additionally, the different instrumental approaches commonly used to identify various chemical components of paintings are described. Next, this report describes a recent effort at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute to bring project-based learning to the upper-level instrumental analysis laboratory. The molecular analysis of a painting (The Buffalo Room, by Robert Chanler) that needed to be conserved was used as the basis for this project. The unique chemical qualities of paintings that make this type of chemical analysis highly challenging are described. Finally, lessons learned from our first attempt to bring forth this type of learning to our students are described. »
Publisher : Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,
Date : None
Type : Text
Format : Pdf
Identifier : asdlib.org/onlineArticles/elabware/StenkenPBLArt.pdf
Source : None
Language : En
Coverage : International
Rights : Institut Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,

Digital preservation, documentation and analysis of paintings, monuments and large cultural heritage with infrared technology, digital cameras...

Bibliographic reference :

RIZZI A., VOLTONI F., GIRARDI S., GONZO L., REMONDINO F. DIGITAL PRESERVATION, DOCUMENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF PAINTINGS, MONUMENTS AND LARGE CULTURAL HERITAGE WITH INFRARED
TECHNOLOGY, DIGITAL CAMERAS AND RANGE SENSORS.

Available at : cipa.icomos.org/fileadmin/papers/Athens2007/FP125.pdf




Extract :

"2.1 Image-Based Modelling (IBM)

Image data are probably the most complete source for digital documentation and 3D modelling. Indeed, geometry and texture information can be derived at the same time, using cheap sensors and fast procedures. Generally the image measurement phase is regarded as the most tedious part leading non-expert to consider this modelling approach as inappropriate, time consuming and, with the advent of range sensors, as out-ofdate.
Between IBM methods, photogrammetry is a highly accurate and flexible approach, suited for different scales and used to derive metric and reliable information of a scene from a
set of images [Remondino and El-Hakim, 2006]. Images acquired in the visible domain are generally employed, even if IR or UV data could also be employed. Old images, stored in
databases or archives, may be also used to document lost objects [Grün et al., 2004]."



Dublin Core Metadata :

Title : DIGITAL PRESERVATION, DOCUMENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF PAINTINGS, MONUMENTS AND LARGE CULTURAL HERITAGE WITH INFRARED
TECHNOLOGY, DIGITAL CAMERAS AND RANGE SENSORS.
Creator : RIZZI A., VOLTONI F., GIRARDI S., GONZO L., REMONDINO F.
Subject : digital analysis/ art paintings/ paintings monuments/ digital documentation
Description : "The digital documentation and 3D modelling of Cultural Heritage monument and sites is receiving great attention in the last years. There is a large variety of technologies for 3D surveying purposes and generally a technique is chosen according to the project requirements, operator experience, budget and location constraints. Digital images and range sensors (laser scanner or stripe projection systems) are generally the most used technologies used to virtually reconstruct the whole geometry of the studied heritage. The combination of the two recording methods has demonstrated to be an efficient way of 3D modeling as no technique by itself is able to provide accurate 3D results in all the applications and in short time. Other data are becoming nowadays pretty common and important for a more deep documentation and investigation of heritages, i.e. image data coming from the light
spectrum outside the visible range. In this work, we present how we derive geometric 3D models of heritage structures by means of close-range photogrammetry or range sensors while extra information acquired with infrared cameras are used for texture mapping purposes and other studies. Data obtained from all those instruments are registered and fused together for documentation reasons, historical studies, restoration plans and visualization purposes."
Publisher : Fondazione B.Kessler-IRST,
Date : 2007
Type : Text
Format : Pdf
Identifier : cipa.icomos.org/fileadmin/papers/Athens2007/FP125.pdf
Source : None
Language : En
Coverage : International
Rights : Institut CIPA Symposium

Using Color and Texture Indexing to improve Collaborative Filtering of Art Paintings.

Bibliographic reference :

KOHRS Arnd and MERIALDO Bernard. Using Color and Texture Indexing to improve Collaborative Filtering of Art Paintings.

Available at : www.eurecom.fr/util/publidownload.en.htm?id=261




Extract :

"3 Content-Based Filtering
It is reasonable to expect that images with similar content will be almost equally interesting to users.
The problem is that de ning image content and image similarity is still an open problem. Ongoing research in multimedia indexing is focusing on two directions: { either each image is described by a textual caption, and captions are compared using techniques derived from document retrieval, { or analysis and recognition techniques are applied to the image pixels to extract automatically features which are compared using some distance measure in the feature space.
We focus on the second approach, because it can be entirely automated. In our prototype, we have currently implemented two feature extraction components, derived from the work described in [10, 11]: Color histograms and texture coe cients."



Dublin Core Metadata :

Title : Using Color and Texture Indexing to improve Collaborative Filtering of Art Paintings.
Creator : KOHRSArnd, MERIALDO Bernard
Subject : content analysis/ art paintings/ filtering/ indexing system
Description : « Information ltering is a key technology for the creation of Web sites, which are adapted to the user's needs. In this paper we identify collaborative ltering and content-based ltering as independent technologies for information ltering. We apply both technologies in our prototype user-adapting Web site, the Active WebMuseum, a recommender system for art paintings. Our new approach extends existing user pro les with content-based information gained through automatic image indexing. These extensions lead to a better performing collaborative ltering system. We validate our approach in o -line experiments. »
Publisher : Institut EURECOM { Department of Multimedia Communications
Date : None
Type : Text
Format : Pdf
Identifier : www.eurecom.fr/util/publidownload.en.htm?id=261
Source : None
Language : En
Coverage : International
Rights : Institut EURECOM { Department of Multimedia Communications

ARTISTE: An integrated Art Analysis and Navigation Environment

Bibliographic reference :

ALLEN Paul, VACCARO Roberto and PRESUTTI Gert. ARTISTE: An integrated Art Analysis and Navigation Environment.

Available at : http://www.cultivate-int.org/issue1/artiste/



Extract :

Introduction

The possibility of an easy and effective management of large data repository is a strategic objective for many enterprises. This field of research is of particular interest to the market, as the availability of large repositories of electronic data is increasing and the industrial interest to solve the problem of automated content-based indexing and retrieval of images is high [1].

European museums and galleries are rich in cultural treasures but public access to masterpieces for education, leisure or work purposes has not reached its full potential. Automation of the indexing, retrieval and delivery of such assets over the web would help to address these issues and expand the accessibility of collections, broadening public awareness of the European cultural heritage, which lies behind them. To date, however, there has been a lack of systems and techniques to provide effective remote access to these collections [2],[3],[4].

New technology is now being developed that will transform that situation. A European consortium, partly funded by the EU under the fifth R&D framework, is working to produce a new management system for visual information. (…)



Dublin Core Metadata :

Title : ARTISTE: An integrated Art Analysis and Navigation Environment.
Creator : ALLEN Paul, VACCARO Roberto and PRESUTTI Gert
Subject : content analysis/ indexing system/ ARTISTE/ databases
Description : Presents the objectives of the ARTISTE project then describes differents applications of this tool as image content analysis or image retrieval.
Publisher : Cultivate interactive
Date : 2000
Type : Text
Format : Html
Identifier : http://www.cultivate-int.org/issue1/artiste/
Source : http://www.cultivate-int.org
Language : En
Coverage : International
Rights : Cultivate interactive

Computer analysis of Van Gogh's complementary colours.

Bibliographic reference:

Igor Berezhnoy, Eric Postma and Jaap van den Herik, Computer analysis of Van Gogh's complementary colours.

Available at: http://www.ai.rug.nl/conf/bnaic2004/ap/a39.pdf

Extract:

3.3. Opponent-colour Analysis

Application of the opponent-colour transform yields three images (one for the luminance channel and one for each chrominance channel). Since our analysis focusses on opponent-colour transitions, the two chromatic-channel images are convolved with odd and even Gabor filters in four orientations (horizontal, vertical and along both diagonals) and at four scales. For the four scales, the support for the Gabor filters measured 82, 162, 322, and 642 pixels. The opponency for each channel is defined as the total energy averaged over the orientations and scales and divided by the number of pixels in the image. The opponency value for a painting equals the summed opponencies of the red-green and blue-yellow channels.

Dublin Core Metadata:

Title: Digital analysis of Van Gogh’s complementary colours
Creator: Igor Berezhnoy, Eric Postma, Jaap van den Herik
Subject: art paintings/ Vincent van Gogh/ digital analysis/ complementary colours

Description: "Traditionally, the analysis of visual arts is performed by human art experts only. The availability of advanced artificial intelligence techniques makes it possible to support art experts in their judgement of visual art. In this paper image-analysis techniques are applied to measure the complementary colours in the oeuvre of Vincent van Gogh. It is commonly acknowledged that, especially in his French period, Van Gogh started employed complementary colours to emphasize contours of objects or parts of scenes. We propose a method to measure complementary-colour usage in a painting by combing an opponent-colour space representation with Gabor filtering. Using this method, the analysis of a dataset of 617 digitised oil-on-canvas paintings confirms artexpert’s knowledge about the global pattern of complementary-colour usage in Van Gogh’s paintings. In addition, it provides an objective and quantifiable way to support the analysis of colours in individual paintings. Our results show that art experts can be supported by artificial-intelligence techniques."

Publisher: IKAT/Computer Science, Maastricht University
Date: None
Type: Text
Format: Pdf

Identifier: http://www.ai.rug.nl/conf/bnaic2004/ap/a39.pdf
Source: None
Language: En
Coverage: International
Rights: IKAT/Computer Science, Maastricht University

Classification of painting cracks for content-based analysis

Bibliographic reference:

F.S. Abas and K. Martinez, Classification of painting cracks for content-based analysis.

Available at: http://eprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk/7294/1/spie_cracks.pdf

Extract:

2. APPLICATION SCENARIO

The capabilities of image analysis and processing can aid conservators if the process can provide them with the functionalities that manual processes fail to do. Among the common problems of manual defect screening are time consumption and the risk of further damage. Required information should be retrieved correctly (i.e as close as possible to the users’ individual perception) and consumes considerably less time and effort. The following sections briefly outline potential application scenarios from a user point of view.

Dublin Core Metadata:

Title : Classification of painting cracks for content-based analysis
Creator : F.S. Abas and K. Martinez

Subject : cracks/ classification/ content analysis/ clustering
Description : "In this paper we present steps taken to implement a content-based analysis of crack patterns in paintings. Cracks are first detected using a morphological top-hat operator and grid-based automatic thresholding. From a 1-pixel wide representation of crack patterns, we generate a statistical structure of global and local features from a chain-code based representation. A well structured model of the crack patterns allows post-processing to be performed such as pruning and high-level feature extraction. High-level features are extracted from the structured model utilising information mainly based on orientation and length of line segments. Our strategy for classifying the crack patterns makes use of an unsupervised approach which incorporates fuzzy clustering of the patterns. We present results using the fuzzy k-means technique."

Publisher : Intelligence, Agents, Multimedia Group, Department of Electronics and Computer Science, University of Southampton, United Kingdom, S017 1BJ.
Date : None
Type : Text
Format : pdf

Identifier : http://eprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk/7294/1/spie_cracks.pdf
Source: None
Language : En
Relation : -
Coverage : United Kingdom
Rights : Intelligence, Agents, Multimedia Group, Department of Electronics and Computer Science, University of Southampton, United Kingdom, S017 1BJ.

ArtHistorian: an integrated indexing and personalized browsing system for art paintings

Bibliographic reference:

Multimedia Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition Lab, ARTHISTORIAN: AN INTEGRATED INDEXING AND PERSONALIZED BROWSING SYSTEM FOR ART PAINTINGS.

Available at: http://www3.itu.edu.tr/~sariel/publications/Cbmi_2005_1033.pdf

Extract:

3. CONTENT-BASED INDEXING

The design of an automatic painting classifier requires the mathematical modeling of the visual clarities as determining features. In this paper, the features that distinguish the five fundamental art movements, namely, classicism, impressionism, cubism, expressionism and surrealism, are defined. However, the same feature set can be effectively used for more than five classes.
In [5], it has been shown that the content of paintings can be indexed by exploiting six different features. Suppose μi refers to ith individual entity of the feature vector μ for i=1,2,.,6. Physically, μ1 is the percentage of dark colors. On the other hand, μ2 is calculated from the gradient map of the painting image, and referred as “gradient coefficient”. Especially, the “classicism” and “cubism” movements, and thereby, “classicist” and “cubist” painters can be classified quite accurately by using these two features. Classification performances of surrealist and expressionist paintings are augmented by μ2.
The classification performances of paintings that belong to impressionism and classicism movements are augmented by the inclusion of two extra features: μ3 is the number of local and global maxima in the luminance histogram. Moreover, μ4 specifies the color range that corresponds to the peak point of the luminance histogram. Impressionist paintings generate one maxima in the bright regions of the luminance histogram, whereas classicist paintings generate a maximum point in dark regions. In cubist, expressionist and surrealist paintings, more than one maximum point occur in variable regions of the histogram.

Dublin Core Metadata:

Title : ARTHISTORIAN: AN INTEGRATED INDEXING AND PERSONALIZED BROWSING SYSTEM FOR ART PAINTINGS.
Creator : Oguz Icoglu, Bilge Gunsel, and Sanem Sariel
Subject : ArtHistorian/ indexing system/ art paintings/ classification
Description : "This paper introduces ArtHistorian, an art painting indexing system designed for automatic generation of dynamic painting presentations. The developed system aims personalized content browsing with a classification based indexing and query method implemented from the art historians’ perspective. ArtHistorian represents the visual content of paintings by a 6-D feature vector that is robust to scale changes and can handle variations in lighting conditions. A nonlinear SVM classifier included in the system learns the characteristics of fundamental art movements, painters and painting styles. Automatically generating indexes based on the classification results, the system creates an efficient storage environment that enables the user to run content-based queries and to retrieve materials from extensive painting records. Thus, it is very suitable for Internet art collections and active Web museums."
Publisher : Multimedia Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition Lab
Date : 2005
Type : Text
Format : pdf
Identifier : http://www3.itu.edu.tr/~sariel/publications/Cbmi_2005_1033.pdf
Source: None
Language : En
Relation : -
Coverage : World
Rights : Electrical-Electronics Eng. Faculty. Istanbul Technical University

Glossary

Abstract art:

Any art in which the depiction of real objects in nature has been subordinated or entirely discarded, and whose aesthetic content is expressed in formal pattern or structure of shapes, lines,and colors. Sometimes the subject is real but so stylized, blurred, repeated, or broken down into basic forms as to be unrecognizable.

Source: http://www.khsd.k12.ca.us/bhs/Perry/art%20vocabulary.htm

Peinture non figurative :

L’art non-figuratif ne représente rien que l'on puisse reconnaître, contrairement aux représentations de la réalité. On emploie également le mot abstrait. L’art abstrait (ou l'abstraction) est une forme d'expression artistique au même titre que l'art figuratif (ou la figuration). Il apparaît au début du XXe siècle, avec l'art moderne, et constitue encore un pan important de l'art contemporain.

Source :http://www.ac-reunion.fr/pedagogie/ArtsPlastiques/glossaire/Index-artpla-gloss3.htm

Paintings :

Color paint applied by hand to a surface (support) such as paper, canvas, wood, glass, or other.

Source: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/techdocs/genre.html

Peinture :

Dans un sens artistique, le terme « peinture » signifie la combinaison de cette activité avec le dessin, la composition, c'est-à-dire qu'il intègre des considérations esthétiques.

Source : fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peinture

Museum :

A building, place or institution devoted to the acquisition, conservation, study, exhibition and educational interpretation of objects having scientific, historical or artistic value. The word Museum is derived from the Latin muses, meaning "a source of inspiration," or "to be absorbed in one's thoughts."

Source: http://www.artefoundation.com/pages/glossary.html

Musées :

C'est le lieu de conservation et de présentation des oeuvres d'art. Il est le lieu irremplaçable où l'on peut voir et revoir les collections permanentes. Il est aussi le lieu où l'on peut découvrir des expositions temporaires provenant d'autres musées ou de collections privées. La création des musées publics remonte pour l'essentiel à la fin du XVIIIe siècle. En France, l'un des plus connus est certainement le musée du Louvre, à Paris. Son ouverture date de 1793. Le musée a considérablement évolué depuis son origine jusqu'à nos jours. Il concentre de plus en plus salles de conférences, bibliothèques et autres services destinés à mettre en valeur les oeuvres et apporter le maximum d'informations aux visiteurs

Source :http://www.ac-reunion.fr/pedagogie/ArtsPlastiques/glossaire/Index-artpla-gloss2.htm

Thesaurus :

A list of subject headings or descriptors assigned in a particular database, index, or online catalog that can be used to search that database.

Source: http://www.peabody.jhu.edu/1437

Thesaurus :

Langage documentaire fondé sur une structuration hiérarchisée d'un ou plusieurs domaines de la connaissance et dans lequel les notions sont représentées par des termes d'une ou plusieurs langues naturelles et les relations entre notions par des signes conventionnels.

Source : http://www.ebsi.umontreal.ca/termino/00000240.htm

Work of art :

Work of art that is a product of one of the fine arts (especially a painting or sculpture of artistic merit).

Source: http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=work%20of%20art

Œuvre d’art :

Une œuvre d'art est un objet purement humain, d'êtres capables de sensibilité, et qui tentent de représenter dans des formes et des structurations d'éléments interagissant une perception construite, réelle ou transcendante

Source : http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%92uvre_d%27art

Multimedia :

Writing and filmmaking encompassing more than one medium at a time which, script-wise, usually refers to CD-ROM games or Internet-based programming.

Source: http://www.screenwriting.info/glossary.php

Multimedia :

Documents ou systèmes caractérisés par l¹intégration de textes, d¹images fixes et en mouvement, et de sons. Comme ces éléments constituent une très grosse part de la documentation et des systèmes actuels, la pertinence de ce terme pour désigner une catégorie spéciale de documents et de systèmes est remise en question.

Source : http://www.ebsi.umontreal.ca/termino/00000173.htm

Content analysis:

A set of procedures for collecting and organizing nonstructured information into a standardized format that allows one to make inferences about the characteristics and meaning of written and otherwise recorded material.

Source: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/BJA/evaluation/glossary/glossary_c.htm

Analyse documentaire:

Processus de description du contenu thématique d'un document. Comporte deux phases distinctes : 1) perception du contenu, 2) représentation formalisée du contenu. On distingue trois niveaux d'analyse et de représentation : 1) la classification (général), 2) la condensation (description verbale), 3) l'indexation (spécifique).

Source: http://ecolebibdoc.blogs.com/dossier_documentaire_docu/2006/11/lexique.html


Indexing:

The process of converting a collection of data into a database suitable for easy search and retrieval.

Source: http://cavalierwebsolutions.com/seoglossary.html


Indexation:

Processus destiné à représenter par les éléments d'un langage documentaire ou naturel des données résultant de l'analyse du contenu d'un document ou d'une question. On désigne également ainsi le résultat de cette opération (AFNOR 1987).

Source: http://www.bibliotheques.uqam.ca/bibliotheques/serv_techniques/analyse/politiques/POL_glossaire.HTML